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Errors and Exceptions

In this section we are going to look at common errors in Python, how they can occur, and how to handle them. These are the type of errors that actually make your code break and stop executing.

Syntax Errors

Syntax errors are quite common when you begin coding in Python. Here is an example where we attempt to write a for loop but we forget the :.

for i in range(2)
    print(i)

  File "<ipython-input-2-47dfaf615d55>", line 1
    for i in range(2)
                     ^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

The SyntaxError is the type of error that is raised and the little arrow ^ is pointing to the first place in the code to where the error is detected. To fix it, we can add the : after the closing bracket.

for i in range(2):
    print(i)

0
1

Exceptions

There are many types of other errors that can occur in your code even if the code has proper syntax. Errors that are detected in the code during execution are called exceptions.

For the next example we will use the image module we wrote and you will need that virtual environment activated if you want to run this code.

from image.image import get_image_content
image_url = 'https://broken_image_url.jpg'
image_content = get_image_content(image_url)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
gaierror                                  Traceback (most recent call last)
~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/connection.py in _new_conn(self)
    159             conn = connection.create_connection(
--> 160                 (self._dns_host, self.port), self.timeout, **extra_kw
    161             )

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/util/connection.py in create_connection(address, timeout, source_address, socket_options)
     60 
---> 61     for res in socket.getaddrinfo(host, port, family, socket.SOCK_STREAM):
     62         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res

/usr/local/opt/python/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.6/lib/python3.6/socket.py in getaddrinfo(host, port, family, type, proto, flags)
    744     addrlist = []
--> 745     for res in _socket.getaddrinfo(host, port, family, type, proto, flags):
    746         af, socktype, proto, canonname, sa = res

gaierror: [Errno 8] nodename nor servname provided, or not known

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

NewConnectionError                        Traceback (most recent call last)
~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py in urlopen(self, method, url, body, headers, retries, redirect, assert_same_host, timeout, pool_timeout, release_conn, chunked, body_pos, **response_kw)
    676                 headers=headers,
--> 677                 chunked=chunked,
    678             )

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py in _make_request(self, conn, method, url, timeout, chunked, **httplib_request_kw)
    380         try:
--> 381             self._validate_conn(conn)
    382         except (SocketTimeout, BaseSSLError) as e:

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py in _validate_conn(self, conn)
    977         if not getattr(conn, "sock", None):  # AppEngine might not have  `.sock`
--> 978             conn.connect()
    979 

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/connection.py in connect(self)
    308         # Add certificate verification
--> 309         conn = self._new_conn()
    310         hostname = self.host

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/connection.py in _new_conn(self)
    171             raise NewConnectionError(
--> 172                 self, "Failed to establish a new connection: %s" % e
    173             )

NewConnectionError: <urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x10b3c4a20>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 8] nodename nor servname provided, or not known

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

MaxRetryError                             Traceback (most recent call last)
~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/requests/adapters.py in send(self, request, stream, timeout, verify, cert, proxies)
    448                     retries=self.max_retries,
--> 449                     timeout=timeout
    450                 )

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/connectionpool.py in urlopen(self, method, url, body, headers, retries, redirect, assert_same_host, timeout, pool_timeout, release_conn, chunked, body_pos, **response_kw)
    726             retries = retries.increment(
--> 727                 method, url, error=e, _pool=self, _stacktrace=sys.exc_info()[2]
    728             )

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/urllib3/util/retry.py in increment(self, method, url, response, error, _pool, _stacktrace)
    445         if new_retry.is_exhausted():
--> 446             raise MaxRetryError(_pool, url, error or ResponseError(cause))
    447 

MaxRetryError: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='broken_image_url.jpg', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: / (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x10b3c4a20>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 8] nodename nor servname provided, or not known',))

During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:

ConnectionError                           Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-4-20ef88645a59> in <module>
      1 from image.image import get_image_content
      2 image_url = 'https://broken_image_url.jpg'
----> 3 image_content = get_image_content(image_url)

~/python_intro_udemy/notebooks/image/image.py in get_image_content(image_url)
      6 
      7 def get_image_content(image_url):
----> 8     image_content = requests.get(url=image_url).content
      9     return image_content
     10 

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/requests/api.py in get(url, params, **kwargs)
     74 
     75     kwargs.setdefault('allow_redirects', True)
---> 76     return request('get', url, params=params, **kwargs)
     77 
     78 

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/requests/api.py in request(method, url, **kwargs)
     59     # cases, and look like a memory leak in others.
     60     with sessions.Session() as session:
---> 61         return session.request(method=method, url=url, **kwargs)
     62 
     63 

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/requests/sessions.py in request(self, method, url, params, data, headers, cookies, files, auth, timeout, allow_redirects, proxies, hooks, stream, verify, cert, json)
    540         }
    541         send_kwargs.update(settings)
--> 542         resp = self.send(prep, **send_kwargs)
    543 
    544         return resp

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/requests/sessions.py in send(self, request, **kwargs)
    653 
    654         # Send the request
--> 655         r = adapter.send(request, **kwargs)
    656 
    657         # Total elapsed time of the request (approximately)

~/Library/Caches/pypoetry/virtualenvs/teach-python-_R03MHmW-py3.6/lib/python3.6/site-packages/requests/adapters.py in send(self, request, stream, timeout, verify, cert, proxies)
    514                 raise SSLError(e, request=request)
    515 
--> 516             raise ConnectionError(e, request=request)
    517 
    518         except ClosedPoolError as e:

ConnectionError: HTTPSConnectionPool(host='broken_image_url.jpg', port=443): Max retries exceeded with url: / (Caused by NewConnectionError('<urllib3.connection.HTTPSConnection object at 0x10b3c4a20>: Failed to establish a new connection: [Errno 8] nodename nor servname provided, or not known',))

The above error is rather long because the requests library actually tries to download the image content several times and that is why the error is repeated more than once. In this case we get a ConnectionError, MaxRetryError, NewConnectionError, gaierror. There is part of the error message which shows the context in the code where the exception occurred, in the form of a stack traceback. Here is a screen short of one such part of the stack traceback:

In the above screen shot it tells you where the error happened in the code. First it shows you the error occured at line 3 in the Notebook cell, image_content = get_image_content(image_url). Next it goes a bit deeper and tells you the file in which the error occured. In this case it was in the Python file ~/python_intro_udemy/notebooks/image/image.py. The error occurred in line 8 of the file and within the function get_image_content. Finally, it goes even further into the requests library source code and says there was an error when using the get function.

When errors occur, it is quite normal for the printout to be long because they show the complete path of the problem. Lets look at some other simpler and yet very common errors built into Python.

Whenever we divide by 0 a ZeroDivisionError is raised.

5 * (10/0)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ZeroDivisionError                         Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-5-7e814a07d49f> in <module>
----> 1 5 * (10/0)

ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Whenever we try and access a key in a dictionary that is not present, a KeyError is raised.

my_dict = {'chris': 35}
my_dict['mike']

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
KeyError                                  Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-6-139bf41c29c7> in <module>
      1 my_dict = {'chris': 35}
----> 2 my_dict['mike']

KeyError: 'mike'

If we try and access a variable that is not defined, a NameError is raised.

4 * my_var + 5

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
NameError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-7-ae5db3693465> in <module>
----> 1 4 * my_var + 5

NameError: name 'my_var' is not defined

Here is an example of a TypeError in which we try and add a string and an integer.

'10' + 10

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-8-4ac0513be2aa> in <module>
----> 1 '10' + 10

TypeError: must be str, not int

Here is an example of a ValueError in which we attempt to convert a string to an integer.

int('chris')

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError                                Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-9-5f10368e8f39> in <module>
----> 1 int('chris')

ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'chris'

The above exceptions are just several of the many different built-in exceptions in Python. It will take time to get use to them and familiar with what they mean.

Handling Exceptions

In most cases we want our code to raise Exceptions and have errors occur when something goes wrong. This way we can figure out the case that caused the error and potentially change the logic within our code. For example, you may get your code to run successfully for many different cases. But then later on there is an edge case that occurs and the code raises an error. Then you can go back and modify your code to handle that edge case.

However, in some cases we may want to handle selected exceptions directly. We can do this with the try statement. Let’s look at an example. Suppose we are reading some data into a list and we are expecting that list to be numbers in the form of strings. In the code below we loop over a list of number strings, convert the string to an integer, add one to the integer, and then print the result.

for x in ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', 'hello world', '7', '8', None, '10']:
    print(int(x) + 1)
        

2
3
4
5
6

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError                                Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-10-5ddd0df8d286> in <module>
      1 for x in ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', 'hello world', '7', '8', None, '10']:
----> 2     print(int(x) + 1)
      3 

ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'hello world'

The code first fails when we get to the string 'hello world' because we can not convert that to an integer and therefore a ValueError is raised. The code will break and the loop will terminate. In some cases we want to handle such errors, take some action, and let the code continue its execution. For example, in this case we could print a simple message and then continue with the rest of the items in the list.

To do this, we can use a try statement and handle specifically any ValueError that gets raised.

for x in ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', 'hello world', '7', '8', None, '10']:
    try:
        print(int(x) + 1)
    except ValueError:
        print(f'Can not convert "{x}" to integer. Moving onto the next item.')

2
3
4
5
6
Can not convert "hello world" to integer. Moving onto the next item.
8
9

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-11-246ae3cda140> in <module>
      1 for x in ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', 'hello world', '7', '8', None, '10']:
      2     try:
----> 3         print(int(x) + 1)
      4     except ValueError:
      5         print(f'Can not convert "{x}" to integer. Moving onto the next item.')

TypeError: int() argument must be a string, a bytes-like object or a number, not 'NoneType'

You can see that the code did not error out on the 'hello world' item and moved on to the next items. But now there is another type of error, a TypeError, because we tried to convert None to an integer. We can also handle this error too like this:

for x in ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', 'hello world', '7', '8', None, '10']:
    try:
        print(int(x) + 1)
    except ValueError:
        print(f'Can not convert "{x}" to integer. Moving onto the next item.')
    except TypeError:
        print(f'Can not convert "{x}" to integer. Moving onto the next item.')

2
3
4
5
6
Can not convert "hello world" to integer. Moving onto the next item.
8
9
Can not convert "None" to integer. Moving onto the next item.
11

In the above example, since we were printing the same message for each error type, we could write the code more simply like this:

for x in ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', 'hello world', '7', '8', None, '10']:
    try:
        print(int(x) + 1)
    except (ValueError, TypeError):
        print(f'Can not convert "{x}" to integer. Moving onto the next item.')

2
3
4
5
6
Can not convert "hello world" to integer. Moving onto the next item.
8
9
Can not convert "None" to integer. Moving onto the next item.
11

When handling exceptions it is good to handle very specific errors (ValueError or TypeError for example) like we did above by trying to catch either a ValueError or TypeError. It is possible to catch any generic exception with except Exception but it is bad practice to have such a generic exception. For example:

for x in ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', 'hello world', '7', '8', None, '10']:
    try:
        print(int(x) + 1)
    except Exception:
        print(f'Can not convert "{x}" to integer. Moving onto the next item.')

2
3
4
5
6
Can not convert "hello world" to integer. Moving onto the next item.
8
9
Can not convert "None" to integer. Moving onto the next item.
11

It’s generally not good to have such a generic exception because it can hide real issues that may need to be handled in a different way.

In genreral, the try statement works like this:

• First, you write the the try clause which is the block of statements between the try and except keywords. This code is executed first.

try:
    try_clause_code_block
except SomeException:
    exception_clause_code_block

• If no exceptions occur during the execution of the try_clause_code_block then the except clause is skipped and execution of the try statement is complete.

• If an exception occurs during execution of the code in the try_clause_code_block, the rest of the try clause is skipped.

  • If the error that is raised matches the exception named after the except keyword, the exception_clause_code_block is executed.

  • If the error raised does not match the exception named after the exception keyword then the code exception_clause_code_block does not get executed. The exception will be raised.

• A try statement may have more than one except clause. But only one of the exception blocks can be executed (whichever comes first).

try:
    try_clause_code_block
except SomeException1:
    exception_clause_code_block1
except SomeException2:
    exception_clause_code_block2
except SomeException3:
    exception_clause_code_block3

Raising Exceptions

You can raise exceptions to force a specific type of exception to occur.

raise ValueError # shorthand for raise ValueError()

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError                                Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-15-33e424a0af92> in <module>
----> 1 raise ValueError # shorthand for raise ValueError()

ValueError: 

raise ValueError()

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError                                Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-16-4954757c312d> in <module>
----> 1 raise ValueError()

ValueError: 

You can add a message to the error.

raise ValueError('oops! Something bad happened!')

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError                                Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-17-43877fe21055> in <module>
----> 1 raise ValueError('oops! Something bad happened!')

ValueError: oops! Something bad happened!

If you need to check if an exception was raised but you do not intend to handle it, you can raise it after checking simply like this:

my_dict = {'chris': 35}
try:
    print(my_dict['penny'])
except KeyError:
    print('Looks like an exception happened')
    raise # allows you to raise the exception

Looks like an exception happened

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
KeyError                                  Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-18-fc55d6361fff> in <module>
      1 my_dict = {'chris': 35}
      2 try:
----> 3     print(my_dict['penny'])
      4 except KeyError:
      5     print('Looks like an exception happened')

KeyError: 'penny'

User Defined Exceptions

You can define your own custom exceptions by creating a new Exception class. You will learn about classes in the next chapter.

class MyCustomException(Exception):
    pass

raise MyCustomException("Oh no!")

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
MyCustomException                         Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-20-7338bef0278b> in <module>
----> 1 raise MyCustomException("Oh no!")

MyCustomException: Oh no!

Optional Clauses

You can use the optional else and finally clause as well. The statements inside the else block will be executed only if the code inside the try block does not raise an exception. The code within the finally block will be executed regardless.

def divide_two_numbers(number1, number2):
    try:
        print(f'Trying to divide {number1} by {number2}.')
        res = number1 / number2
    except ZeroDivisionError:
        print('You can not divide by 0!')
    else:
        print(f'The result is {res}')
    finally:
        print('Good Bye!')
        

divide_two_numbers(4, 2)

Trying to divide 4 by 2.
The result is 2.0
Good Bye!

divide_two_numbers(4, 0)

Trying to divide 4 by 0.
You can not divide by 0!
Good Bye!

divide_two_numbers(4, 'chris')

Trying to divide 4 by chris.
Good Bye!

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-24-48b07e8d37c2> in <module>
----> 1 divide_two_numbers(4, 'chris')

<ipython-input-21-864d6a65b44e> in divide_two_numbers(number1, number2)
      2     try:
      3         print(f'Trying to divide {number1} by {number2}.')
----> 4         res = number1 / number2
      5     except ZeroDivisionError:
      6         print('You can not divide by 0!')

TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'int' and 'str'

In the last case we tried to divide a number by a string which causes a TypeError which we are not handling. The finally block finishes and then after the TypeError is raised.

Some Examples

Example 1

while True:
    try:
        num = int(input('please enter an integer: '))
        break
    except ValueError:
        print(f'Oops! Not a valid number!')        

Example 2

my_dict = {1: (2, 1), 2: (50, 10), 3: (20, 10),
           5: (100, 5), 6: (1, 0), 7: ('hello', 'world'), 8: (106, 2)}
print(my_dict)

{1: (2, 1), 2: (50, 10), 3: (20, 10), 5: (100, 5), 6: (1, 0), 7: ('hello', 'world'), 8: (106, 2)}

for i in range(1, 9):
    try:
        num1, num2 = my_dict[i]
        res = num1 / num2
    except KeyError:
        print(f'{i} is not a key in the dict!')
    except ZeroDivisionError:
        print(f'You can not divide by 0!')
    except Exception:
        print(f'Something else went wrong when trying to compute {num1} / {num2}')
    else:
        print(f'The result of {num1} / {num2} is {res}')
    finally:
        print('Done!\n')

The result of 2 / 1 is 2.0
Done!

The result of 50 / 10 is 5.0
Done!

The result of 20 / 10 is 2.0
Done!

4 is not a key in the dict!
Done!

The result of 100 / 5 is 20.0
Done!

You can not divide by 0!
Done!

Something else went wrong when trying to compute hello / world
Done!

The result of 106 / 2 is 53.0
Done!

None Value A Quick Intro to Reading and Writing Files